|
|
||
 |
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
||
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Select: Pre-Augustinian Philosophy - The Apologists - Justin Martyr The Controversialists - The Didascalion of Alexandria - Clement of Alexandria Origen - The Latin Apologists - Tertullian The Great Controversies of the First Half of the Fourth Century
|
|
|
General Observations In common with much early philosophy, Christianity holds to theism, or the absolute transcendence of God. Hence it would have been possible, absolutely speaking, to work out a Christian philosophy from the very first appearance of Christianity. Such a philosophy, taking into account the dogmatic affirmations of religion, would have explained the philosophical problems which follow from the absolute transcendence of God. But this did not happen in the centuries immediately following the appearance of Christianity, and one must wait for the rise of Scholasticism in order to have a Christian philosophy. The Christians of the ages immediately following the birth of Christianity were occupied with the defense of their religion against the accusations of paganism and with establishing its dogmas in exact formulas rather than in fashioning a system of philosophy which would be in accord with those dogmas. Preoccupation with revealed truths prevailed over the data of rationalization. This period, given strictly to the vindication and determination of revealed truths, is called the Patristic Age, and extends from the second through the eighth century, that is, until the dawn of Scholasticism. Patristic thought has very great value with reference to theology. Certain writers of this age are called the Fathers of the Church because they are sure guides in the interpretation of the truths of Christian belief. But their contribution to the history of thought is of little interest. The Fathers were also philosophers, but with the exception of St. Augustine not one of them was very much preoccupied with philosophy. They considered it only incidentally, when the problem of religion offered occasion to enter into a philosophical discussion. A second general observation on Patristic thought is that regarding the difference in attitude of the Greek and Latin Fathers toward philosophy. The Greek Fathers as well as those of Alexandria and the rest of proconsular Africa, were more inclined by tradition to speculation; consequently they considered philosophy an ally of theology, and when the occasion presented itself, they willingly appealed to philosophy. On the other hand, Rome never had a real philosophical tradition; she was the creator of law, not of philosophy. The Latin Fathers -- and with them are included the Fathers of Latin Africa, chiefly at Carthage -- had a predilection for practical moral problems based on the law. Their attitude toward philosophy was not only one of negligence, but at times one that is even hostile, since they saw in philosophy the danger of rationalizing religion and hence of taking from it its revealed content. Patristic thought reached its culmination in the Council of Nicea (325), but the greatest -- indeed, the only exponent of Patristic philosophy -- is St. Augustine. Keeping this in mind, philosophy divides Patristic thought into three periods: (1) Pre-Augustinian; (2) Augustinian; (3) Post-Augustinian.
The Pre-Augustinian Period includes the second and third centuries of the Christian era and the first half of the fourth century. During the second century the Fathers of the Church were largely engaged in defending Christianity from the accusations hurled against it by pagans and Jews. Their writings are in the form of apologies or defensive tracts in which they directly intend to show that these accusations are unreasonable; indirectly they also try to acquire new converts to Christianity. Moreover, the second century saw the rise of a dangerous heresy, Gnosticism. The Fathers of this century are classified as apologists and controversialists. The apologists of the second century were for the most part Greeks. Aristides of Athens directed an apology to the Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161) to prove that only the Christians possess the true idea of God. Athenagoras, a Christian philosopher of Athens, in an apology which seems to be directed to the Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, defends the Christians against the calumnious reports of their being atheists and partaking in bloody banquets. He goes further and points our the purity of Christian morality. Minucius Felix wrote Octavius, a dispute between a pagan and a Christian, and in it he refutes the usual calumnies against the Christians and administers a sound beating to polytheism. The most important Greek apologist of the second century is St. Justin Martyr who, after having spend his youth in contact with Stoic, Pythagorean, and Platonic philosophers, was converted to Christianity about the year 130. After his conversion he opened a school at Rome, where he died a martyr's death about the year 165. Two Apologies and his Dialogue with the Jew Triphon have come down to us. In his literary work, Justin attempts a defense of Christianity through philosophy. For Justine not only is there no contradiction between Christianity and Greek philosophy, but Greek philosophy should be laid down as a basis for Christianity and Plato considered the disciple of Moses. Everything that is true and great in Greek philosophy is Christian, and Christianity is the complement of ancient thought, according to Justin. The earliest defense of Christianity against paganism using philosophical arguments was written by Justin (picture), who later suffered a martyr's death in Rome. Justin's Apologies is also of interest because it describes Christian worship as it was performed in early times, refutes accusations against members of the Christian community and tries to convince pagan philosophers by using their own terms. Justin, who was born in the Samaritan town of Flavia Neapolis, the old Shechem which had been destroyed by Vespasian in 67 A.D. and which is called Nablus today, probably was not of Samaritan but of pagan descent. Evidently he had studied pagan philosophy before his conversion, and acquired, if not profound knowledge, a fluency of style and ability in using philosophical terms. Justin also had a controversy with a Jewish scholar on which he reported in his Dialogue with Tryphon. Tryphon probably was a real person, known as Tarfon the Tanna, who was opposed to Christianity but who died before Justin was grown up. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
The controversialists are distinguished from the apologists in this, that their writings are aimed at refuting the various heresies which appeared in the second century. Among these heresies the most important was Gnosticism, which, although presented in different forms, is always the same in this, that it attempts to empty religion of its supernatural content and to reduce dogmas to physical events. Gnosticism may be presented in outline form as follows: an abstract concept of the divinity which transcends the world of phenomena is its first point. There is a separation between God and the author of the world; Demiurge is the architect of the world. Opposition exists between spirit and matter; matter is evil, darkness. Between the world and the divinity there exists a series of intermediate "eons"; Christ is one such eon who appeared to liberate those souls that had been imprisoned in matter by Demiurge. Christ did not have a real body, nor did He really die; His body was only apparent. hence there are no such things as grace or the sacraments. Purification from evil is obtained through a special knowledge of God and of good; this knowledge is gnosis. The Pastor (or Shepherd) of Hermas was written against such heresies. In this work the unknown author points out the new doctrines as teachings published by men who have lost their common sense. He insists on fidelity to the truths "that God is one, that He has created and disposed all things, has called forth all things from nothingness into existence, and contains all things." The third century is important on account of the development which began to appear in the Christian school of Alexandria, the Didascalion, and also for the written apologies of certain Church Fathers of western Africa. 3. The Didascalion of Alexandria In the beginning, the Didascalion of Alexandria was a school preparing for baptism those who were being converted to the new faith. Toward the latter half of the second century, however, and the first half of the third century, Alexandria became the seat of a lofty philosophical culture. During this period, Ammonius Saccas taught at Alexandria and Plotinus formulated the last great system of Greek philosophy. The atmosphere of speculative culture in Alexandria brought about the transformation of the primitive catechumenical school into an institute of high culture dependent on the Bishop. The continuous polemical attacks which Christianity had to sustain against the Neo-Platonists resulted in the formation of learned men who, moving on the same philosophical plane, would be capable of refuting the accusations of the adversaries. The Christians thus prepared were called Gnostics (not to be confused with the heretics of the same name) as distinct from the simple Christians who believed but did not possess the broad culture necessary for entering safely into arguments with adversaries. This transformation of the Christian school of Alexandria came about at the end of the second century. The first director of the Christian school was Pantaenus; the greatest masters of the school after him were Clement and Origen.
Clement of Alexandria (c.150-215) St. Clement of Alexandria (picture) was born about the year 150 of pagan parents, probably in Athens. Converted to Christianity, perhaps through his philosophical investigations, and desirous of obtaining a more profound knowledge of the faith, he undertook a series of travels in search of Christian teachers. When he reached Alexandria he met Pantaenus, at that time director of the Didascalion, and, attracted by his deep learning and sanctity, he remained close by the master. On the death of Pantaenus toward the year 200, Clement succeeded him as director and teacher of the school, and had Origen (see below) as his pupil. A few years later, forced by the persecution of Septimius Severus to close the school, he retired to Cappadocia in Asia Minor, where he died. The most important works of Clement are the Protrepticus (or the Word, prompter of the Christian Life) in twelve chapters; the Paedagogus, in three books, the first of which presents the Word as the teacher of souls, while the other two treat of the vices which Christians must avoid; the Stromata, or "Tapestries," miscellanies on different teachings. Clement is chiefly concerned with showing the connection between philosophy and faith. He believes that Greek philosophy prepares the mind so that it may better understand revealed truths. Man, through the medium of philosophy, transforms his faith into wisdom, that is, into the Christian gnosis. Through this latter, them, he attains a superior understanding of revelation which the simple faithful do not have. Clement does not place gnosis in opposition to faith, nor revelation in opposition to faith. Instead, he holds that science (or knowledge) contributes to making the Christian more convinced of the truths of his faith. Thus there is in Clement the cultivation of philosophy which in ancient times would have had as its end the education of pagans. In the Christian world the purpose of this cultivation was to develop the gnosis by which a Christian, convinced of what he believes and does, might be able to live a good life. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
Origen (picture), called the Adamantine, was born in Alexandria about the year 185 of Christian parents. His father, Leonides, died a martyr. When Clement as Bishop of Alexandria, had to leave his see because of the persecution of Septimius Severus, he entrusted the direction of the Didascalion to Origen, then a youth of only eighteen. Desirous of obtaining a more profound culture, Origen entered Ammonius Saccas' school in Alexandria, where he was a fellow student of Plotinus and learned the Platonic philosophy which was to predominate in all his activities as master of the school and as an author. Wishing to complete his culture and also to meet persons who were desirous of knowing him, he undertook long journeys. During this time he was ordained a priest by the Bishops of Caesarea and Jerusalem -- this, against the wishes of his own Bishop. When he returned to Alexandria he was not only deprived of his chair in the Didascalion, but was also condemned for certain heterodox opinions expressed in his book De principiis. He then left Alexandria and sought refuge with the two Bishop friends who had ordained him. In Caesarea he opened a theological school which surpassed that of Alexandria. He taught in this school for twenty years amid universal admiration, and died at Tyre about the year 253. Origen's literary productivity was extraordinary. More than a hundred works came from his pen, but the greater part of these have been lost. His most important writings are: De principiis and Contra Celsum. In the beginning Origen enjoyed very wise fame, but gradually this declined as his works gave occasion to greater discussion and the latent errors of Platonism were revealed in them. Origen attempts to furnish Christianity with a solid rational basis, and for this reason he can be considered as the first systematizer of scientific theology. In De principiis he tried to give us a science based on revelation. In fact he begins his argument with revealed truths, which he makes the basis of his speculation, and then draws those conclusions which can be rationally deduced from them. Despite his good intentions, this method of thought only implanted the seeds of those errors which gave occasion to the so-called question of "Origenism"; Creation is eternal as a consequence of the goodness of God, who is eternal, and because creation in time would imply mutability in God. The creation of souls is also eternal, and although by nature all souls are equal, the use and abuse of liberty separates them into various grades. Evil cannot be eternal. In regard to the resurrection of the dead, it is not certain what Origen taught. Contra Celsum is a defense of religion written by Origen against Celsus, a pagan philosopher and the author of Sermo verus in which attacked Christianity in the Gospel, in the person of Christ, and of those who believe in Him. Origen attacks Celsus on the same plane by minutely discussing the prophecies and miracles of Christ and by showing a prodigious erudition and a solid faith tempered in the school of the martyrs. For Origen, the spread of the Church and of the moral reform carried on by her are signs of her vitality and divine origin. In The Radical Academy
Elsewhere On The Internet
4. The Latin Apologists (Latin Africa) The Fathers of the Western Church, because of a general tendency to rationalize Christianity, were preoccupied with the danger of Gnosticism, and therefore opposed any mingling of religion and philosophy. Among the Latin apologists, besides Minucius Felix, who has been mentioned in the account of the second century, are Arnobius, author of Adversus gentes, a work which recognizes only the Christian faith as certain knowledge, and Lactantius, author of Institutiones divinae. The most original, though not a philosopher, is Tertullian of Carthage. Born toward the middle of the second century, Tertullian gave himself to literary, philosophical, medical, and especially juridical studies.
It is believed that Tertullian (picture) practiced law. Born a pagan, he was converted to Christianity about the year 190 and was ordained priest about the year 200. A man of willful, militant, and rigorist trend of mind, he ultimately became a member of the Montanist sect. His writings were numerous, and all of a polemical nature -- the fitting product of his uncommon dialectical abilities. His most outstanding work is the Apologeticus, in sixty chapters. In defense of Christianity against the accusations of the pagans, Tertullian appeals to reason, common sense, and nature. In his writings against heretics, and especially the Gnostics, who in the name of philosophy emptied faith of its revealed content, he assumes an attitude of hostility toward philosophy. "The Gospel and the Academy have nothing in common; truth is given to us by the former, while the latter loses itself in empty ratiocinations," wrote Tertullian in his Credo quia absurdum. He appeals to the Roman magistrate against the absolute power of the civil authority; for instance, he criticizes the answer given to Pliny by Emperor Trajan when the latter was told that he should abstain from hunting out Christians, but should condemn them only if they were denounced to the tribunal. With convincing logic Tertullian asks why, if the Christians deserve condemnation, shouldn't they be sought out? And if they should not be sought out, then why not let them go free? "Si damnas, cur non et inquiris? Si non inquiris cur et non absolvis?" Tertullian, who was not ignorant of philosophy, assumes an anti-philosophical and anti-rationalist attitude because the times in which he lived showed him how all heresies had arisen in the name of philosophy. He is the representative of the Latin thought of the West, which was diffident toward speculation. He was a lover of the law which, he believed, should be the same for all citizens. In The Radical Academy Elsewhere On The Internet
5. The Great Controversies of the First Half of the Fourth Century During the first half of the fourth century there arose great controversies on the Trinity and the Christological doctrines of the Church. The Trinitarian problem may be stated as follows: What relationship exists between the person of Jesus, the Son of God, and the Father and Holy Spirit? The Christological problem, briefly stated, is: What is the relationship between the divinity of Jesus and the humanity which He assumed during His life on earth? Both problems gave occasion to many heresies. The most noteworthy heterodox teaching regarding the Trinitarian question was the heresy of Arius, a priest of Alexandria, who affirmed the likeness of the Son to the Father, but denied His consubstantiality with the Father. The great opponent of Arius was St. Athanasius of Alexandria, defender of the Catholic formula of consubstantiality which was approved in the council of Nicea in 325. In connection with the Christological question there arose two kinds of heresies: the first, called Monophysitism and championed by Eutyches, held that Jesus had only one nature, the divine, in which His human nature was absorbed. Eutyches was condemned by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The second heresy was that of Nestorius, which was condemned in the Council of Ephesus in 431. Nestorius, a priest of Antioch, separated the divine and human natures in Jesus, thus forming two persons. Mary, the Mother of Jesus, must be called the Mother of Christ, not the Mother of God. The Catholic formula, that in Christ there are two distinct natures, the human and the divine, in the unity of the Divine Person, was determined by the letter of Pope Leo the Great and upheld in the Council of Ephesus by St. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria. During this period there arose in defense of Catholic truths a numerous host of Church Fathers whose authority in theology is very great. Besides those already mentioned there are: St. Gregory of Nazianzus, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom, St. Ambrose, St. Eusebius, St. Hilarius. The greatest contribution was made by the Greek Fathers, as has already been observed, and for this reason they may be called the founders of theology.
Enrich Your Life With a Philosophy Book...
|
|
|
Introduction & Directory |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
|
||
[Homepage] [Newsletter] [Search] [Support the Academy] [Link to Us] [Contact the Academy] [Citing Articles from Our Website] [Privacy Policy & Disclaimer]
Copyright 1998-99, 2000-01, & 2002-03 by The Radical Academy. All Rights Reserved.
This Page Was Updated On